TOKYO — Japanese voters went to the polls on Sunday in an upper house election widely regarded as a referendum on the government's handling of inflation, wage stagnation and immigration, with the ruling Liberal Democratic Party braced for setbacks.

The election for half the 248 seats in the House of Councillors comes as the LDP-led coalition struggles to maintain a stable majority. Rising food and energy costs have squeezed household budgets, and public frustration over the cost of living dominated the campaign. Opposition parties and smaller populist movements sought to capitalise on the discontent.

Immigration and the rapid growth of foreign visitors and workers emerged as a prominent campaign theme, with conservative and nationalist candidates pressing for tighter controls. Turnout was closely monitored, as low participation has historically favoured the LDP's organised base.

A weak result would deepen pressure on the prime minister's leadership and complicate efforts to pass budget and security legislation. Analysts at Japanese think tanks warned that further coalition erosion could trigger internal LDP challenges and revive speculation about the government's durability.

Exit polls were expected shortly after voting closed at 8pm local time, with major broadcasters projecting seat totals through the evening.